In order to improve our understanding of the components that reflect functionally important processes during reward anticipation and consumption, we used principle components analyses (PCA) to separate and quantify averaged ERP data obtained from each stage of a modified monetary incentive delay (MID) task. Although a small number of recent ERP studies have reported that reward and loss cues potentiate ERPs during anticipation, action preparation, and consummatory stages of reward processing, these findings are inconsistent due to temporal and spatial overlap (...) between the relevant electrophysiological components. Our results show three components following cue presentation are sensitive to incentive cues (N1, P3a, P3b). In contrast to previous research, reward‐related enhancement occurred only in the P3b, with earlier components more sensitive to break‐even and loss cues. During feedback anticipation, we observed a lateralized centroparietal negativity that was sensitive to response hand but not cue type. We also show that use of PCA on ERPs reflecting reward consumption successfully separates the reward positivity from the independently modulated feedback‐P3. Last, we observe for the first time a new reward consumption component: a late negativity distributed over the left frontal pole. This component appears to be sensitive to response hand, especially in the context of monetary gain. These results illustrate that the time course and sensitivities of electrophysiological activity that follows incentive cues do not follow a simple heuristic in which reward incentive cues produce enhanced activity at all stages and substages. (shrink)

This reader-friendly book examines philosophies and philosophers using an engaging, non-condescending approach that speaks to you at your level.

Pharmacists, physicians, and other health care personnel practice within an integrated system of laws and regulations that influence many treatment modalities. Capitation, managed care, and other controls strain these relationships by mandating greater oversight of how health care is delivered. From a pharmacists’s perspective, any use of medication requites knowledge of three omnipresent factors: regulatory control, formularies, and economic decision making. My objective is to raise awareness of these issues as they relate to the prescription of pain medication and to (...) pain management generally.All practice-oriented drug law and regulation is based on the federal Controlled Substances Act of 1970. The Act, also known as Title II, is part of a much larger piece of legislation, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. CSA was enacted to regulate the manufacturing, distribution, dispensing, and delivery of drugs or substances that are subject to, or have the potential for, abuse or physical or psychological dependence. (shrink)

Since the inception of their subject as a distinct area of study in philosophy, environmental ethicists have quarreled over the choice of entities with which an environmental ethic should be concerned. A dichotomous ontology has arisen with the ethical atomists, e.g., Singer and Taylor, arguing for moral consideration of individual organisms and the holists, e.g., Rolston and Callicott, focussing on moral consideration of systems. This dichotomous view is ecologically misinformed and should be abandoned. In this paper, I argue that the (...) organization of the natural world, as viewed by some ecologists and evolutionary biologists, is structured on various levels that are not reducible to one another. This hierarchical view, expressed by Salthe and Eldredge, provides the most complete and accurate ontology for environmental ethics. (shrink)

Worldview Religious Studies brings the study of religion, spirituality, secularism, and other mixed attitudes of life under the overarching scheme of worldview studies. This book introduces and defines worldviews more generally before establishing a framework specific to religious studies. The drive for meaning-making is explored through ritual-symbolic activities, ideas of 'play', and the power of emotions to transform simple ideas into values and beliefs that frame identity and signpost destiny. Identity and its sacralisation are discussed alongside gift/reciprocity theory in their (...) relation to ideas of merit, karma, and salvation in Eastern and Western traditions. This theoretical background is used to introduce a new classification of worldviews - natural, scientific, ancestral, karmic, prophetic-sectarian, mystical, and ideological. Organised thematically by chapter, this book brings together familiar and unfamiliar authors, theories, and sources to challenge students and teachers of Religious Studies, Theology, and Ethics. It introduces worldview religious studies as a framework through which to re-think human endeavours to identify, cope and even transcend life's flaws and perils. (shrink)

Volume 31, Issue 3, May 2026, Page 382-384.

Moral judgments can occur either in settings that call for impartiality or in settings that allow for partiality. How effective are impartiality settings such as hospitals in suppressing personal biases? Portrayed as decision-makers in an emergency department, 431 college students made judgments on which of two victims of a mass shooting should receive immediate, life-saving care. Patients differed in ways that could reveal biases, e.g., age, kinship, gender, and villain/hero. Participants rated each patient’s moral deservingness to receive immediate care and (...) the likelihood they would choose the patient. Both scales showed young favored over old, cousin over stranger, and policeman over shooter. In a hospital-room scenario with high risk of injury from falling, age bias disappeared. With moderate fall risk, age bias reversed and kinship deservingness bias disappeared. Bias decreases when there is a decrease in severity of potential harm to the preferred stakeholder. Settings that call for impartiality are not reliable “boundary conditions” against expressions of bias. In the absence of explicit guidelines for allocating scarce resources, a systematic, objective method of random selection offers a potentially useful strategy. (shrink)

Volume 29, Issue 7-8, November - December 2024.

Volume 29, Issue 7-8, November - December 2024.

Volume 31, Issue 1, February 2026, Page 123-125.

This work investigates the complexity of ethics as a field of inquiry and practice across a principal's career. Fully contextualized, and thus carrying the contradictions and requirements of any school, the issues realistically do not usually lead to a single, beat-all answer, as any solution will likely have positive and negative consequences. Drawn from the authors' experiences and studies of schools over decades, the central figure is a fictional principal of a magnet school, whose dilemmas reflect the questions educators must (...) be prepared for. Each decision takes into account the principal's and staff's identities and values because they are all human and their opinions influence the outcomes. The work injects analytic, virtue, feminist, care, deontological, and critical theory insights as Deweyan ethics provides a lens for examining dilemmas. This accessible work blends reflective theory, the ordinary worlds of schools, and engaging pedagogical practice to guide those planning to enter the education sector. (shrink)

Racism as an ideology, as the assertion of “white” supremacy and “black” inferiority as if it were a natural and incontrovertible condition, has to be completely deconstructed to its roots in order to see clearly its destructive intent and consequences. The very idea of “race” has a contradictory and confusing origin, as well as an inconsistent and highly variable application, even in the contemporary world. “Racial” classifications and hierarchies are named as the evasive constructions they are, the product of racism (...) and its racist imaginations. Contradictions are exposed, and confusion illuminated, in order to show how racist ideology, born of the need to justify oppression, torture, enslavement, and death, creates the idea of “race.” This idea has no scientific, biological, or genetic foundation, and as such must be rejected as a legitimate way to see ourselves and other human beings. Yet it is a schema and framework that our world is saturated with, making it inescapable at the same time. Use of critical race theory, properly understood, can assist in clarifying this situation and its contradictions and setting up a foundation for further efforts. (shrink)

The continuing power of racist ideology threatens liberal democracy, for racism is more than a personal bias or a social construction. It is an ideological framework that reduces human beings to an existence along a color-coded spectrum, with people designated as “white” at the top of the hierarchy and people designated as “black” at the bottom. One has to see this ideology clearly in order to choose a proper response and then act accordingly. First, the reality of “race” has been (...) exposed as unscientific and illusory, and as based not on biology or genetics, but on a legacy of empowerment for some and enslavement for others. Second, this racist ideology, part of our disenchanted, secular age, is exposed as a continuing form of enchantment in its manner of seeing the world, opening the possibility for a spiritual response. Third, dismantling this racist ideology requires a reimagining of “blackness” as a source of life and spirituality, as a way of countering and rewriting the dominant racist narrative. Fourth, a postsecular spiritualty, based on the work of Pope Francis—that emphasizes the importance of protecting our common human dignity, of caring for each other, and of “walking together”—can be engaged as a path for action in the battle against racism. (shrink)

In a wonderfully written and engaging text, Christopher Clark has crafted both a specific analysis of German politics and history over three-hundred years and a broad review of the changes in histo...

Parental refusal of a recommended treatment is not an uncommon scenario in the neonatal intensive care unit. These refusals may be based upon the parents’ perceptions of their child’s projected quality of life. The inherent subjectivity of quality of life assessments, however, can exacerbate disagreement between parents and healthcare providers. We present a case of parental refusal of surgical intervention for necrotizing enterocolitis in an infant with Bartter syndrome and develop an ethical framework in which to consider the appropriateness of (...) parental refusal based upon an infant’s projected quality of life. (shrink)

Religious beliefs influence the making of war and war-making influences religious belief, but religion is not a cause of war. That would be the general conclusion one can take from this work by Arn...

The immediate perception after 9/11 was that we were entering a world of “new terrorism”: new actors, new tactics, new responses. And yet more than a decade later, it seems that not much has really changed, or that the changes have been contextual rather than structural. Authors have used the modifier “new” in many different ways, creating a contested and confused understanding of what terrorism is and how it appears in the world. The same applies to how one defines terrorism, (...) examines its domains and forms, delineates its actors and strategies, or compares it to state violence and fear in international relations. This raises the question of why scholars, rather than agreeing on a definition of terrorism, have focused on its many contexts, applications, and psychologies, concluding that there is a substantial and significant difference between the old and the new terrorism. However, when one tests this notion of the “new terrorism” against the case of Al-Qaeda, one finds that the tactical changes, primarily technological, as well as those in motivation and organization, are hardly new, and that the structural, ideological, and political features of terrorism have remained fundamentally the same. (shrink)

Racism has distorted our imaginations to reinforce the absolute dichotomy between the light and the dark, where the former is always pure and good and the letter always polluted and evil. This distinction has roots in our spiritual and religious traditions and has been radicalized by racist ideology. Choosing to see the beauty and warmth in darkness, instead of focusing only on suffering and despair, and tapping into the same spiritual and religious traditions that imagine the dark as a place (...) of creativity, birth, protection, and relationship, is an important step in the reimagination of the value of darkness. Scriptural sources in the books of Genesis, Exodus, Psalms, and Job complement readings of early Christian spiritual traditions centering on the revelation to be found in darkness. The result is a reconsideration of the absolute difference between light and dark and a renewed appreciation for the value of darkness, whether in the color of night or in the color of one’s skin. (shrink)

Stephen Biddle explores the increasingly blurry lines between international wars and civil wars in the twenty-first century through an analysis of military strategy and tactics across several scena...

The stereotype of the “ecologically noble savage” is still prevalent in European-American discourses. I examine the empirical justifications offered for this stereotype, concluding that we lack sound empirical grounds for believing in “ecological nobility.” I argue that the stereotype should be abandoned because it has negative consequences for native peoples. Instead of accepting questionable stereotypes, philosophers and others should focus on the lives of particular peoples in order to understand their philosophies as well as the relationships that they maintain with (...) their homelands. (shrink)

Racism has created a field of tensions and contradictions that have to be navigated rather than resolved, lived within, and mined for their creative potential. The problem is much more deeply rooted than is often understood, grounded in our language, our words, and our beliefs. Our ongoing work as leaders is filled with inherent tensions and complications, from the effort to align the vision and mission of our organizations around our actual policies and practices to the need to see the (...) enchanted remnant of older ways of thinking and believing that they survive in our disenchanted, rational world. There is an ongoing mystery to our work, a tension between charismatic and administrative leadership, between the spirit of our efforts and the human material we all have to work with, and between the functionality of our gatherings and the unpredictable nature of our encounters. Add to this the tensions between the efficacy of our work and the efficiency of our leadership, all of this before we have even begun struggling with the antiracist principles of diversity, equity, and inclusion, and one can see the magnitude of the challenge. (shrink)

In Aristotle’s On the Soul he considers and refutes two versions of the harmonia theory of the soul’s relation to the body. According to the harmonia theory, the soul is to the body what the tuning of a musical instrument is to its material parts. Though he believes himself to have entirely dismissed the view, he has not. I argue that Aristotle’s hylomorphic account is, in fact, an instance of the harmonia theory.

As each individual abandons himself to the solicitous aid of the State,so, and still more, he abandons to it the fate of his fellow-citizens.Wilhelm Von Humboldt,On the Limits of State Action.

There are numerous tensions surrounding the work of diversity, equity, and inclusion, tensions that are inherent to the work. The primary tension revolves around language, and the use of terms like racism, “race,” “black,” and “white.” A new way of using this language, one that acknowledges that the ideology of racism produces the language of “race,” is essential. Naming as a practice is a complicated process, with deep roots in the images and words we regularly use. It begins with naming (...) racism as the oppressive ideology that it is, challenging us to use all the resources we have at hand to struggle with it. Those resources ought to include spiritual ones, particularly Christian resources, as the origin of racism is deeply implicated in a world shaped by European Christian colonialism and imperialism. The complicated relationship between religion and spirituality can be used to develop an approach that is rooted in the practice of seeing, choosing, and acting. Informed by the leadership insights and practices of Pope Francis, we can begin the work to liberate our imaginations from racist ideology. (shrink)

Most recent work on antiracist leadership addresses racism as either personal bias or as social construction or as both working together. Their analysis and suggestions for action are important and valuable, worthy of inclusion and appreciation, but ultimately incomplete. Many of them fail to address racism effectively as an ideology, something more than personal failing and structural discrimination. The ones that do so link it to other ideologies, such as capitalism and colonialism, as a modifier rather than an ideology in (...) its own right. Their emphasis on relationship and collaboration are all necessary and worthwhile contributions, yet they take as given a world constructed by “race” and develop strategies and tools to cope with racism and reduce its impact on disadvantaged and discriminated against groups. Seeing beyond personal bias and social construction, without discarding them as insightful and useful modes of analysis and action, is necessary in order to get to the roots of racism and its destructive effects. Only when the ideology of racism is clearly seen and confronted head-on can progress be made. (shrink)

Just as Christianity is implicated in the creation and expansion of racism, alternative readings of the same tradition may provide ways to challenge this history and reimagine our ways of seeing each other. Both Catholic social thought and the Protestant social gospel provide theological and spiritual insights that correct the assumptions of racist ideology. The deconstruction of “whiteness” and the elevation of “blackness” as a counterweight are two of the first choices to be made. A consistent listening to and understanding (...) of Afro-American writers, who connect the Christian idea of suffering under the regime of “whiteness” to the situation of those under the oppression of racism, is another choice that is required. Developing a renewed understanding of human dignity, rooted in our common creation as human beings, is an essential element in the removal of the power of racist ideology from our minds, organizations, and institutions. (shrink)

Taking a page from the leadership work and spirituality of Pope Francis, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, the work of antiracist leadership has to confront the problems of credibility and collaboration without relying simply on authority and obedience. A spirituality rooted in care, openness, and inclusivity, one rejecting judgment, control, and exclusivity, is an essential component of antiracist leadership. It looks to the linkages between care for the natural environment and care for our fellow human beings, between the (...) economic exploitation of some and the racist oppression of others, and between our communities linked by history, culture, and language and their distorted reflection in “racial” identities as all-important steps along the way. The task is to walk together, sharing stories, courageously leading and following in turn, speaking boldly and listening attentively, and pursuing mercy and forgiveness in all our actions toward each other. The work of expanding diversity, equity, and inclusion, of strengthening antiracist leadership, cannot be achieved otherwise. (shrink)

Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced medical education toward more “online education” approaches, causing specific implications to arise for medical educators and learners. Considering an unprecedented and highly threatening, constrained, and confusing social and educational environment caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, we decided to shift the traditional focus of the Cognitive Load Theory from students to instructors. In this process, we considered recent suggestions to acknowledge the psychological environment in which learning happens. According to this fundamental fact, “Learning and instructional (...) procedures do not occur in a situational vacuum.” Following this assertion, we adapted and implemented principles of CLT to reduce the extraneous load for our faculty to facilitate continued scholarly activity and support the overall wellbeing of our faculty during these trying times. The adoption of these principles enabled our team to cultivate attitudes and skills across multiple domains, such as online presentation technologies, implementing and maintaining a “classroom atmosphere” in a virtual environment, encouraging discussion among large online groups of students, facilitating group work, providing virtual office hours, and proactively planning for subsequent sessions. (shrink)

There has been a significant shift in the way terrorist violence is organized. Advocates of extreme violence no longer organize first in person and through word of mouth and utilize the internet an...

Cutting and parsing the corpus of a great author’s work is properly a delicate and exacting task, particularly when executed by numerous authors within the limits of a three-hundred-page academic b...

This essay is a response to Peter E. Vedder's Fall 2007 review of the authors' book, Norms of Liberty: A Perfectionist Basis for Non-Perfectionist Politics. Vedder argues that the authors 1) have a Kantian notion of self-directedness, and 2) are inconsistent in the application of their philosophical anthropology to their view of political liberty. In denying both claims, the authors assert that Vedder both fails to define certain terms and holds them to positions they do not accept.